Nama : Erny Bt Yohanes
Introduction of Basic English (I)
A.
Using a
dictionary
·
A dictionary
contains an alphabetical list of words and their meanings.
·
Dictionaries
contain other information as well as helping your spell and find the meanings
of unfamiliar words.
1. Does your
dictionary have :
|
Definitions / word meaning.
|
Synonims or antonims
|
US (American Spelling)
|
|
Plural of nouns
|
Pronounciation of words
|
Parts of Speech
|
|
Origins of words
|
Capitalisation
|
Grammatical information
|
|
Prepositional rules
|
English spelling
|
Word usage (e.g.slang)
|
2. Different Kinds of Dictionaries
•
Math
Dictionary • Illustrated
Dictionary • The Australian
Slang Dictionary
•
Non-English
Language Dictionary •
Special Subject Dictionary
•
Australian
English (e.g.Macquire Dictionary) • Internet
Dictionary
•
American
English (e.g. Webster’s Dictionary) • E-dictionary
3. Finding Your Way Around Your Dictionary
•
Look in the
introduction section of your dictionary (Make sure your edition is no more than
10 years old)
•
The introduction
section gives :
§ The explanation of the meanings of special marks
§ How to say (pronounce) words
§ Abbreviations and symbols
§ Details on how to use that dictionary
4. Word Meanings
•
Many people
use a dictionary to find the meaning of words.
•
Each word that
is explained in the dictionary is usually in bold type.
•
Entry words
may be shown divided into syllables (e.g.cal-am-ity)
•
Some words may
have only one meaning, and some have more than one meaning.
•
It might
necessary to scan all meanings to find one that suits the context.
5. Illustrative Sentences
•
Sentences that
show how a word is used are sometimes included in dictionaries.
•
The following
sentence for example, might be used to demonstrate the meaning of ”sarcasm”.
•
“How unselfish you are”, said the girl with sarcasm,
as her brother took the biggest piece of cake.
6. Checking your spelling in dictionary
•
Sometimes
there are two or more correct spellings of a single word (Be aware of American
and English Spelling), e.g. Colour/color
•
They are
usually in bold type and may be treated in two ways :
•
If the
different spelling is used as frequently
•
(e.g. ax or
axe)
•
If the main
entry spelling is preferred (e.g.medieval also mediaeval).
7. Part of Speech and Plurals
|
adj.
Adjective
|
prep.
Preposition
|
adv. Adverb
|
|
interj. Interjection
|
pro.
Pronoun
|
n. Noun
|
|
v. verb
|
conj. Conjunction
|
pl. plural
|
|
pt. Past
tense
|
pp. Past
participle
|
sing. Singular
|
•
An entry may
show how to spell the plural form of a noun
(especially if it is formed in different way). For example : radius ---radii
, sheep---sheep.
•
If this is
formed by adding –s or –es , it is not usually shown.
8. Finding difficult word
•
Words in a
dictionary occur in strict alphabetical order.
•
Word may begin
with a different letter which sounds the same. In this situation, the
alternative way to find the word is by looking through its tricky sounds.
9. List of some tricky beginning sounds
|
Beginning
sounds
|
The word could begin with
|
Example
|
|
F
|
Ph
|
photo
|
|
G
|
Gh
|
Ghost
|
|
G
|
Gu
|
Guest
|
|
J
|
G
|
Gem
|
|
K
|
Ch
|
character
|
|
Kw
|
Qu
|
Quite
|
|
N
|
Gn
|
gnash
|
|
N
|
Kn
|
Knee
|
|
N
|
Pn
|
pneumonia
|
|
R
|
Rh
|
rhyme
|
|
R
|
Wr
|
write
|
B.
Vocabulary and
tenses
1. Vocabulary Strategies
•
Make a
sentence with the new word or expression
Example : I put the letter in an envelope.
•
Make notes
about how to use the word or expression
Example : information NOT informations
•
Mark the
stress
Example : pho(to)graphy
•
Write the
pronounciation
Example : photography / fэ’togrэfi/
•
Organise new
vocabulary in topic groups
•
Write words
with similar meanings
•
Write words
with their opposites
•
Use pictures
and diagrams
•
Write list of
words with their translations
•
Write a
definition in english
Example : to repeat = to do again
•
Write
different part of speech
Example : translate (v), translation(n), translator (n.person)
•
Write words
with their partners
Example : go to, make a mistake,etc
C.
Reading Skill
•
Reading in English is like reading in your native
language. This means that it is not always necessary to read and understand
each and every word in English.
•
Remember that reading skills in your native language
and English are basically the same.
1. Types of Reading Skill
•
Skimming - used to understand the "gist" or
main idea.
•
Scanning - used to find a particular piece of
information
•
Extensive reading - used for pleasure and general
understanding
•
Intensive reading - accurate reading for detailed
understanding
2. SKIMMING
•
Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important
information, or 'gist'. Run your eyes over the text, noting important
information
•
It's not essential to understand each word when
skimming.
•
Examples of Skimming:
§ The
Newspaper (quickly to get the general news of the day)
§ Magazines
(quickly to discover which articles you would like to read in more detail)
§ Business
and Travel Brochures (quickly to get informed)
3. Scanning
•
Scanning is used to find a particular piece of
information. Run your eyes over the text looking for the specific piece of
information you need.
•
scanning on schedules, meeting plans, etc. in order to
find the specific details you require.
•
If you see words or phrases that you don't understand,
don't worry when scanning.
•
Examples of Scanning
§ The
"What's on TV" section of your newspaper.
§ A train /
airplane schedule
§ A
conference guide
4. Extensive Reading
•
Extensive reading is used to obtain a general
understanding of a subject and includes reading longer texts for pleasure, as
well as textbooks.
•
Do not worry if you understand each word.
•
Examples of Extensive Reading
§ The latest
marketing strategy book
§ A novel you
read before going to bed
§ Magazine
articles that interest you
5. Intensive Reading
•
Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to
extract specific information.
•
It includes very close accurate reading for detail.
•
Use intensive reading skills to grasp the details of a
specific situation. In this case, it is important that you understand each
word, number or fact.
•
Examples of Intensive Reading
§ A
bookkeeping report
§ An
insurance claim
§ A contract
Introduction of Basic English (II)
A. Listening And Conversation Skill
1. What does it mean to really
listen ?
· Real
listening is an active process that has three basic steps.
· Hearing
Hearing
just means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For example,
say you were listening to a report on zebras, and the speaker mentioned that no
two are alike. If you can repeat the fact, then you have heard what has been
said.
· Understanding
The next
part of listening happens when you take what you have heard and understand it
in your own way. Let's go back to that report on zebras. When you hear that no
two are alike, think about what that might mean. You might think, "Maybe
this means that the pattern of stripes is different for each zebra.“
· Judging
After you
are sure you understand what the speaker has said, think about whether it makes
sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think, "How could the
stripes to be different for every zebra? But then again, the fingerprints are
different for every person. I think this seems believable."
2. Tips for
being a good listener :
· Give your
full attention on the person who is speaking. Don't look out the window or at
what else is going on in the room.
· Make sure
your mind is focused, too. It can be easy to let your mind wander if you think
you know what the person is going to say next, but you might be wrong! If you
feel your mind wandering, change the position of your body and try to
concentrate on the speaker's words.
· Let the
speaker finish before you begin to talk. Speakers appreciate having the chance
to say everything they would like to say without being interrupted. When you
interrupt, it looks like you aren't listening, even if you really are.
· Let
yourself finish listening before you begin to speak! You can't really listen if
you are busy thinking about what you want say next.
· Listen for
main ideas. The main ideas are the most important points the speaker wants to
get across. They may be mentioned at the start or end of a talk, and repeated a
number of times. Pay special attention to statements that begin with phrases
such as "My point is.." or "The thing to remember is...“
· Ask
questions. If you are not sure you understand what the speaker has said, just
ask. It is a good idea to repeat in your own words what the speaker said so
that you can be sure your understanding is correct. For example, you might say,
"When you said that no two zebras are alike, did you mean that the stripes
are different on each one?"
· Give
feedback. Sit up straight and look directly at the speaker. Now and then, nod
to show that you understand. At appropriate points you may also smile, frown,
laugh, or be silent. These are all ways to let the speaker know that you are
really listening. Remember, you listen with your face as well as your ears!
3. Thinking Fast
Remember:
time is on your side! Thoughts move about four times as fast as speech. With
practice, while you are listening you will also be able to think about what you
are hearing, really understand it, and give feedback to the speaker.
B. Conversation skill
1. Better English Speaking Skill
Improving your English speaking skills will help you
communicate more easily and effectively. But how do you become a more confident
English speaker?
Ø Practise
where you can, when you can.
Any practice is good – whether you speak to someone who is a
native English speaker or not.
Ø It's
important to build your confidence.
If possible, use simple English sentence structure that you
know is correct, so that you can concentrate on getting your message across.
Ø Try to
experiment with the English you know.
Use words and phrases you know in new situations. Native
English speakers are more likely to correct you if you use the wrong word
than if you use the wrong grammar. Experimenting with vocabulary is a
really good way of getting feedback.
Ø Try to respond
to what people say to you. You can often get clues to what people think by
looking at their body language. Respond to them in a natural way.
Ø Try NOT to
translate into and from your own language. This takes too much time
and will make you more hesitant.
Ø If you
forget a word, do what native English speakers do all the time, and say
things that 'fill' the conversation. This is better than keeping completely
silent. Try using um, or er, if you forget the word.
Ø Don't speak
too fast!
It's important to use a natural rhythm when speaking English,
but if you speak too fast it will be difficult for people to understand you.
Ø Try to
relax when you speak – you'll find your mouth does most of the
pronunciation work for you. When you speak English at normal speed, you'll
discover that many of the pronunciation skills, such as linking between words,
will happen automatically.
Other Important Tips
when speaking English…
Ø Try to
become less hesitant and more confident.
Ø Don't be
shy to speak – the more you do it, the more confident you'll become.
Ø Remember to
be polite – use "please"
and "thank you" if you
ask someone to do something for you.
General Aims in Speaking
Ø Speak
English more confidently and fluently
Ø Improve
your English pronunciation so other people understand you better
Ø Reduce your
native accent
How It Works
Step 1
Listen to
the correct pronunciation given by native English speakers
Step 2
Step 2
Repeat and
record the phrase
Step 3
Step 3
Compare your pronunciation to native English speakers (direct speaking, movie, song,and other media).
C. Writing Skill
1. TYPES OF
WRITING
· ACADEMIC
WRITING
· PERSONAL
WRITING
· TECHNICAL
WRITING
ACADEMIC WRITING
o Purpose :
To display knowledge
o Audience :
teachers, colleagues, lecturers, other researchers
o Example :
Research paper, Journal articles, Proceeding, etc
PERSONAL WRITING
o Purpose :
To enlighten, entertain
o Audience :
Yourself or friends
o Examples :
Journals, letters, etc
TECHNICAL WRITING
o Purpose :
To get something done
o Audiences :
Supervisors, subordinates, or customers
o Examples :
reports
2. Key
Features of Good Academic Writing :
o Write ,
don’t speak
o Avoid
cliches, euphemisms, and tautologies
o Avoid
slang, and emotive and personal expressions
o Active
rather than passive writing: steer clear of waffle
o Add variety
of your expression
o Be accurate
and specific
o Avoid point
form, unanswered questions, and “ floating quotations “
Context
Clues
1. Definition
of Context
· To improve
the ability to guess the meaning of unfamiliar word, we can use context clues.
· Context
refers to the sentence and paragraph in which a word occurs.
· However, in
using the context to decide the meaning of a word, the knowledge of grammar and
understanding of the author’s ideas are needed
2. How to
improve the ability to guess
· Use the
meanings of the other word in the sentence (or paragraph) and the meaning of
the sentence as a whole to reduce the number of possible meanings.
· Use grammar
and punctuation clues that point to the relationships among the various parts
of the sentence
· Be content
with a general idea about the unfamiliar word; the exact definition or synonym
is not always necessary.
· Learn to
recognize situations in which it is not necessary to know the meaning of the
word.
Exercise 1
Each of
sentence in this exercise contains a blank . You should supply a word that is
appropriate in terms of grammar and meaning for each blank by using context
clues
1. I removed
the…….from the shelf and began to read.
2. Harvey is a
thief; he would……the gold from his grandmother’s teeth and not feel guilty
3. Our uncle
was a…….., an incurable wanderer who never could stay in one place.
4. Unlike his
brother, who is a truly a handsome person, Hogartty is quite……..
5. The
Asian…….., like other apes, is specially adapted for life in trees.
6. But surely
everyone knows that if you step on an egg, it will…..
7. Tom got a
new ……..for his birthday. It is a sports model, red, with white interior and
bucket seats.
Exercise 2
Read each sentence carefully, and write definition,
synonym, or description of the italicized word on the line provided.
1. We watched
as the cat came quietly through the grass toward the bird. When it was just a
few feet from the victim, it gathered its legs under itself, and pounced.
Pounced________________________
2. Some people
have no difficulty making the necessary changes in their way of life when they
move to a foreign country; others are not able to adapt as easily
to a new environment.
Easily________________________
3. In spite of
the fact that the beautiful egret is in danger of dying out
completely, many clothing manufacturers still offer handsome prices for their
long, elegant tail feathers, which are used as decorations on ladies’ hats.
Egret_________________________
4. When he
learned that the club was planning to admit women, the colonel began to inveigh
against all form of liberalism; his shouting attack began with
universal voting and ended with a protest against divorce.
Inveigh Against______________________
5. The snake slithered
through the grass.
Slithered___________________________
6. Experts in kinesics,
in their study of body motion as related to speech, hope to discover new
methods of communication.
Kinesics______________________________
7. The man
thought that the children were defenseless, so he walked boldly up to the
oldest and demanded money. Imagine his surprise when they began to pelt
him with rocks.
Pelt_____________________________
8. Unlike her gregarious
sister, Jane is shy, unsociable person who does not like to go to parties or to
make new friends.
Gregarious________________________
9. After a day
of hunting, Harold is ravenous. Yesterday, for example, he ate
two bowls of soup, salad, a large chicken, and a piece of chocolate cake before
he was finally satisfied.
Ravenous_________________________
10. After the
accident, the ship went down so fast that we weren’t able to salvage
any of our personal belongings.
Salvage_____________________________
3. Identifying
Contextual Definitions
·
Sometimes a sentence is like a “sentence” in
mathematics :
o Solar
energy is energy from the sun
A +
B = B
+ C
o Solar
energy , power from the sun has many uses
A + B
= D +
C
Example
·
Your instructor, or teacher, will explain the lesson
·
The answer is in the conclusion, the last part of the
story.
·
People who study the stars are called astronomers
·
I will use diagrams– pictures or drawings – to explain
the new machine.
Describing Graph
1. Kriteria
Pendeskripsian Grafik
Dalam mendeskripsikan sebuah grafik, harus memenuhi
kriteria-kriteria berikut :
·
Harus memiliki struktur yang tepat (introduction, body
dan conclusion).
·
Menggunakan grammar dan vocabulary yang tepat.
·
Mampu memdeskripsikan keseluruhan grafik (tidak secara
detail) dengan tetap berfokus pada detail atau informasi penting dalam sebuah
grafik.
2. Memilih
Informasi Penting dalam Grafik
· Grafik perlu
dideskripsikan secara keseluruhan. Namun dalam hal ini tidak berarti bahwa
setiap informasi dalam grafik harus ditampilkan. Biasanya terlalu banyak
informasi yang terdapat dalam sebuah grafik. Oleh karena itu dalam
mendeskripsikan sebuah grafik, perlu untuk membaginya menjadi bagian-bagian
kecil. Hal ini dikenal dengan cara mendeskripsikan tren (describing trends)
· Contoh :
Sebuah
grafik dapat dibagi berdasarkan perioda atau tahun
 |
|||
 |
· Cara kedua
dalam mendeskripsikan tren adalah dengan jalan membagi grafik berdasarkan
bentuk grafik
· Dari grafik
contoh, tren dapat dibagi menjadi empat bagian yaitu :
· Peningkatan
(gradual increase) 1960 – 1968
· Peningkatan
(steeper increase) 1968 – 1977
· Tidak
terjadi perubahan (a plateau) 1977 – 1983
· Penurunan
(a drop) 1983 – 1988
3. Struktur
Pendeskripsian Grafik
· Pendahuluan
(Introduction)
Menggunakan
dua standar dalam memperkenalkan grafik.
Pertama,
mendefinisikan grafik secara keseluruhan baik dalam hal waktu, lokasi dan apa
yang dideskripsikan dalam grafik.
Contoh :
Kedua,
mendeskripsikan keseluruhan tren yang tampak pada sebuah grafik
Contoh :
· Isi (Body)
Isi
merupakan bagian yang mendeskripsikan grafiks secara detail. Bagian ini harus
disusun berdasarkan urutan kronologis sehingga informasi harus dituliskan
berdasarkan yang paling dulu terjadi hingga yang paling akhir.
· Kesimpulan
(Conclusion)
Merupakan
kalimat akhir yang berisi ringkasan dari seluruh hal yang telah dijelaskan
sebelumnya.
4. Mendeskripsikan
Tren
· Tren adalah
gerakan atau perubahan. Perubahan ini biasanya digambarkan secara numerik
(angka) contoh :jumlah populasi, volume produksi, atau jumlah pengangguran.
· Ada tiga
tren dasar, yaitu :
· Dalam
mendeskripsikan perubahan dapat menggunakan kata kerja (verb of change) atau
kata benda.
Contoh :
Ø Noun dan
Verb untuk mendeskripsikan Grafik
Ø Adjective
dan Adverb
· Kita dapat
memodifikasi kata benda (noun) dengan kata sifat (adjective) atau sebuah kata
kerja (verb) dengan kata cara (adverb)
Ø Mendeskripsikan
Level Perubahan
Ø Mendeskripsikan
Kecepatan Perubahan
·
Dalam mendeskripsikan tren juga dapat dilakukan dengan
cara :
·
Melihat perbedaan pada dua level
·
Melihat akhir dari sebuah titik
Contoh :
5. Mengekspresikan
Aproksimasi
Exercise
·
Gunakan term di bawah ini untuk mendeskripsikan grafik
di bawah ini :
initally, stood at, dip/dipped,
peak/peaked, level/levelled out
·
Tuliskan 3 buah kalimat untuk mendeskripsikan grafik
di bawah ini dengan menggunakan kata by, of dan to
Describing Graph, Table and Diagram
(2)
1. Mempresentasikan
Grafik, Tabel, dan Diagram
· Pada sebuah
grafik, axis horisontal dan vertikal memberikan informasi yang paling penting.
Umumnya trend dalam perioda waktu yang spesifik digambarkan dalam axis
tersebut.
· Pada
diagram batang, informasi disajikan dalam bentuk yang sama namun dengan
penyajian unit pengukuran dalam bentuk batang atau kolom.
· Histogram
memperlihatkan distribusi secara numerikal
· Diagram
pie memperlihatkan proporsi yang
biasanya ditunjukkan dalam bentuk persentase.
· Tabel
merepresentasikan data secara detail dalam menunjukkan perubahan terhadap waktu
atau distribusi variabel berdasarkan waktu atau tipe. Dibutuhkan interpretasi
yang lebih dalam dibandingkan dengan grafik.
2. Focus
Bahasa untuk Grafik, Tabel dan Diagram
·
Focus bahasa untuk grafik, tabel dan diagram dibagi
menjadi :
o Introductory
expressions (ekspresi pendahuluan).
o Time
Expression (Ekspresi Pewaktuan)
o Term of
Measurement ( Istilah-istilah pengukuran).
v Ekspresi
Pendahuluan
Contoh :
•
The graph/table/diagram shows/ indicates/ illustrates/
reveals/ represents….
•
It can be seen from the graph/ table….
•
As the graph/table shows,…
•
As can be seen from the graph/table,…
•
As is shown by the graph/ table, …..
•
As is illustrated by the graph / table, …..
•
From the graph / table, it is clear that…..
Exercise
Jodohkanlah
sebanyak mungkin ekspresi pada tabel sebelah kiri dan sebelah kanan dengan
tepat
|
·
The graph shows/indicates
·
It is clear from the table
·
It can be seen from the graph
·
As the table shows,
·
As can be seen from the graph,
·
As is shown / illustrated by the graph
|
·
That the population of Alia grew in the 20th
century.
·
The growth in the size of the population of Alia.
·
The population of Alia grew in the 20th
century
|
v Ekspresi
Pewaktuan
·
In
In 1999…. In the 20th century….. In the first ten years…..
·
For
For the first six months….. For twenty years….
·
During
During the first six months….. During the first half of this country…. During the remainder of the year……
·
From….to /
until….
From August to / until
November…. From 1950 to 1960…..
·
Between….and….
Between 1950 and 1960….
·
Before/
after
Before 1960 the number remained
small, but after 1965, there was a sudden increase.
·
By
By the late 19th century
the rural workforce had declined significantly
·
Around /
about
Around/ about 1980 there was a
change in the number of female part-time employees.
·
At
At the end of the last century
there was a sharp increase in manufacturing
·
Since
Since the 19th century there has
been a steady decline
·
Ekspresi
lainnya
o In the
period from….to….
o In the
period between….and…
o in the first/last
three months of the year
o over the
period…..to…..
o over the
next years/decades/ quarter of a century
o over a ten
year period
o throughout
the 19th century
o from that
time on
o after that
o then
o in the
1980s
Penggunaan
Verb yang Tepat
·
Untuk sebagian besar bentuk visual, waktu sering
disajikan dalam bentuk lampau. Dalam hal ini Past Simple Tense
digunakan. Jika terdapat dua hal yang terjadi pada waktu yang bersamaan,
gunakan Past Continuous Tense pada salah satu dari keduanya.
·
Jika menggunakan kata since atau recently,
gunakan The Present Perfect Tense.
·
Dengan menggunakan kata by maka digunakan
bentuk The Past Perfect atau The Future Perfect Tense.
v Istilah-istilah
Pengukuran
o Kuantitas
amount quantity
number figure
the
total the
total amount
the
total quantity the total number
all
of the the
whole of the
the
whole amount the full amount
the
majority the greatest number
the
maximum the minimum
|
With Countable Nouns
|
With Uncountable Nouns
|
|
(amount)
(quantity)
Number
All of the
Many
(a lot of)
|
Amount
(quantity)
The whole (of the)
A great deal of
( a lot of)
|
o Unit
Pengukuran Lain
•
Range rate level degree
extent scale proportion
ratio percent percentage
•
Length weight distance height
altitude area volume size
frequency duration
3. Verbs dalam
Deskripsi Grafik, Table dan Diagram
•
Be make
up consist of
•
Constitute comprise amount to
•
Equal account for represent
•
Include record reach
•
Stand at become
4. Verb yang
Menggambarkan Tren
•
Increase go
up rise grow
expand double multiply jump
climb gain raise accelerate
develop escalate
•
Decrease go
down fall drop
decline reduce shrink lessen
lower contract slow down deplete
diminish level
off
•
Remain/ stay the same / unchanged/ steady/ stable/ constant
•
Fluctuate vary
5. Mathematical
Expression
· Half n. Halve vb. double n./vb
· Triple n. Treble vb. Threefold adj.
· Quarter
n./vb multiply vb. Divide vb.
· Average
adj. / vb /n
· Total
adj./vb partial adj.
· Equal
adj./n. fraction n.
6. Phrase
·
Adjectives
high / low : a
high/low percentage
large : a
large number
great : a
great number
significant : a significant
number/percentage / amount
considerable : a considerable
amount/ increase
substantial : a substantial increase/decrease
major
: a major increase / decrease
remarkable : a remarkable increase
steady : a
steady decrease
widespread : the
widespread consumption
·
Adverbials
over : over 20 %
under : under 5000
just over / under : just over /under 5000
people
around / about : around / about 50 %
approximately :
approximately 25 %
slightly :
slightly more than half; slightly over 40%
marginally :
a marginally smaller percentage
significantly :
significantly fewer women
close to :
close to half
considerably : considerably more exports
substantially : substantially less traffic
almost :
almost exactly twice as many
7. Comparison,
Contrast dan Correlation
· Verb “to
compare” menunjukkan kesamaan dan perbedaan antara dua hal
· Verb “ to
contrast” hanya digunakan untuk menunjukkan perbedaan.
· Verb “ to
correlate” menunjukkan hubungan antara dua hal yang terjadi pada waktu yang
bersamaan; seringkali berarti hubungan sebab dan akibat.
8. Implicit
dan Explicit Contrast
· Dalam
beberapa kasus, hal-hal yang kontradiktif tersirat. Hal ini dapat dilakukan
dengan menempatkan hal-hal tersebut secara berdampingan.
contoh :
Alia is a republic with a
popularly elected president. Betastan is a military dictatorship.
Pada contoh di atas tidak diperlukan
untuk menggunakan connective word seperti “ by contrast” karena kontradiktifnya
tersirat dari kalimat tersebut dengan jelas.
· Untuk
Explicit Contrast dimana kontradiktif dari dua hal tidak tersirat dengan jelas,
dibutuhkan kata-kata untuk memperlihatkan perbedaan antara dua hal.
Untuk
perbandingan yang sederhana, kata-kata yang dapat digunakan diantaranya :
more less fewer greater
larger smaller higher lower
· More,
greater, higher, dan less digunakan dengan uncountable nouns dan the singular
verb
contoh :
There is
more/greater/less growth in GNP p.a in Alia than in Bestastan.
o More and
fewer are followed by countable nouns in the plural.
Contoh :
There were more/fewer accidents last
year than the year before.
o Kesamaan
(similarity) dapat diperlihatkan dengan menggunakan kata-kata di bawah ini :
similarly likewise equally
in the
same way the same
in a
similar way/fashion
both …. and…. as well as…
not only…. but
also…. also
too like x, y……
as…as… just
as x, y… just as x, so y…
o Kontradiktif
juga dapat diperjelas dengan menggunakan connective word di bawah ini :
but while in contrast to
however whereas by contrast
nevertheless although instead of
yet even
though apart
from
on the other hand as opposed to
except for unlike
Describing Technical Object
1.
Describing Parts or Components
Practice
2. Describing More than One Part
Practice
3. This and These
Language Focus
4. Articles
·
Secara mendasar, an article adalah kata sifat (adjective).
Sebagaimana adjectives, articles berfungsi memodifikasi kata
benda (nouns).
·
Bahasa Inggris memiliki 2 jenis articles: the
dan a/an. The digunakan untuk merujuk pada kata benda tertentu
atau spesifik; a/an digunakan untuk memodifikasi kata benda yang tidak
tentu atau tidak spesifik. Kita menyebut the sebagai the definite
article dan a/an sebagai the indefinite article.
Ø Articles
A/An
o "A"
and "an" merujuk bahwa kata
benda yang dimodifikasi adalah indefinite, menunjuk pada setiap anggota
dari kelompok yang dimaksud contoh :
o "My
daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." Ini merujuk pada anjing manapun.
o "Somebody
call a policeman!" Ini merujuk pada polisi manapun.
o a +
singular noun digunakan pada kata benda yang dimulai dengan konsonan: a boy;
a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
o an +
singular noun digunakan pada kata benda yang dimulai dengan vokal: an
elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
o a +
singular noun digunakan pada kata benda yang dimulai dengan BUNYI konsonan: a
user (dibaca 'yu-zer); a university; a unicycle
o an + nouns
digunakan pada kata benda yang dimulai dengan bunyi vokal: an hour
Ø Articles
The
o The
definite article digunakan sebelum kata benda tunggal dan jamak jika kata benda
yang dimaksud spesifik atau tertentu. Contoh:
o "The
dog that bit me ran away." Di kalimat ini, anjing yang dimaksud adalah
anjing tertentu yang menggigit saya.
o "I was
happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Pada kalimat ini, polisi
yang dimaksud adalah spesifik yaitu yang menyelamatkan kucing saya.
5. Countable
dan Non-Countable Nouns
·
A count noun adalah kata-kata benda yang dapat
dinyatakan dalam bentuk jamak, biasanya dengan menambahkan “-s” pada akhir
kata. Contoh : "cat—cats," "season—seasons,"
"student—students."
·
A noncount noun adalah kata-kata benda yang tidak
dapat dinyatakan dalam bentuk jamak. Contoh : "milk,"
"water," "air," "money," "food.“
·
Some/Any: Pada countable dan uncountable nouns.
o "There
is some water on the floor."
o "There
are some Mexicans here."
o "Do
you have any food?"
o "Do
you have any apples?"
·
Much/Many: Much memodifikasi hanya uncountable nouns.
Many memodifikasi hanya countable nouns.
o "We
don't have much time to get this done."
o "Many
Americans travel to Europe."
·
Little/Few: Little memodifikasi hanya uncountable
nouns.
- "He
had little food in the house."
- "The
doctor had little time to think in the emergency room."
·
Few memodifikasi hanya countable nouns.
- "There
are few doctors in town."
- "Few
students like exams."
·
A lot of/lots of: A lot of/lots adalah bentuk informal untuk much and many.
Digunakan untuk uncountable nouns ketika berarti much dan dengan
countable nouns ketika berarti many.
- "They
have lots of (much) money in the bank."
- "A
lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe.“
·
A little bit of: A little bit adalah bentuk informal dan selalu digunakan pada
uncountable noun.
- "There
is a little bit of pepper in the soup."
- "There
is a little bit of snow on the ground."
·
Enough: Enough memodifikasi countable dan uncountable
nouns.
- "There
is enough money to buy a car."
- "I
have enough books to read."
·
Plenty of: Plenty memodifikasi countable dan
uncountable nouns.
- "They
have plenty of money in the bank."
- "There
are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland."
·
No: No memodifikasi countable dan uncountable nouns.
v Describing Lines
v 
Shapes
Shapes
v Technical Measurement
v 
Mathematical Operators
Mathematical Operators
v Language Focus : What is it made of?
v Example of Describing Technical Object
Passive
Voices, Modals, Adjective and Adverb
A.
PASSIVE VOICES
1. Passive Vs Active Sentence
·
Compare these
two Sentences :
o Active : The secretary typed the report
o Passive : The report was typed (by the secretary)
·
When the
person doing the action (the secretary) is the subject then we use an active
verb.
·
When the
subject is what the action is directed at (the report), then we use a passive
verb
2. Form
Be (is/was/have been etc) + the past
participle
Examples :
·
Tenses and
Aspect in the Passive :
The letter was posted yesterday
·
Modal Verbs in
the Passive :
All tickects must be shown
·
The Passive
with Get :Sometimes we use get instead of be
The letter got lost in the post
3. New Information
·
A sentence
contains a topic and also new information about the topic. The new information
usually comes at or near the end of the sentence.
·
Example :
Thomson discovered the electron
In this
sentence, the topic is Thomson. The new information is that he discovered the
electron. The electron is the important piece of new information, the point of
interest.
·
The new
information can be the agent.
Example :
The Electroin
was discovered by Thomson
Here the
electron is the topic. The new information is that its discoverer was Thomson.
Thomson is the point of interest, and it comes at the end of the sentence in a
phrase with by.
Other examples :
The Electron was discovered in 1897
The gas should be lit carrefully
with a match
4. Passive sentence without an agent
·
In a passive
sentence, we mention the agent only if its important new information. There is
often no need to mention it.
Examples :
o A new government has been elected (by people)
o The man was arrested (by police)
o Hamlet was written in 1601 (by Shakespeare)
·
The agent may
not be relevant to the message
Examples :
o A large number of Sherlock Holmes film have been made.
(the makers of the films are not relevant – the number of films)
o The Atom was regarded as solid until the electron was
discovered in 1897. (the discoverer of the electron are not relevant- the time
of discovery)
·
Sometimes we
do not know the identity of the agent.
Example : My
car was stolen
·
Sometimes we
do not mention the agent because we do not want to.
Example :
Mistakes have been made
5. Empty Subject
·
Even when the
agent is not important or not known, we do not always use the passive. In
informal speech, we can use you, one, they, people or someone as vaque and
empty subject.
·
Passive
Sentence is preferred in more formal English
Examples :
o You/ One can’t do anything about it (Active)
o Nothing can be done about it (passive)
o We/People use electricity for all kinds of purposes
(Active)
o Electricity is used for all kinds of purposes (passive)
6. Typical Context for the Passive
·
We can use the
passive in speech, but it is more common in writing, especially in the
impersonal style of textbooks and reports.
o To describe industrial and scientific processes
- The ore is usually dug out of the ground.
-
If sulphur is heated, a number of changes can be seen.
o To describe historical and social processes
- A new political party was formed
-
A lot of money is given tho help the hungry
o Official rules and procedures
- The service is provided under a contract
- This book must be returned to the library by the date above.
7. Verbs which cannot be passive
·
An
intransitive verb cannot be passive. These sentences have no passive
equivalent.
o Something happened
o He slept soundly
o The cat ran away
·
Some state
verb cannot be passive, e.g. Be, belong, exist, have (=own), lack, resemble,
seem, suit. These sentences have no passive equivalent.
o Tom has a guitar
o The building seemed empty
·
Some verbs can
be either action verbs or state verbs, e.g. Measure, weigh, fit, cost. They can
be passive only when they are action verbs.
o Action & Active : The decorator measured the wall
o Action & Passive : The wall was measured by the
decorator.
o State : The wall measured three metres
but NOT Three metres was measured by the wall
·
But some state
verbs can be passive, e.g. Believe, intend, know, like, love, mean, need, own,
understand, want.
o The building is owned by an American Company
o Old postcards are wanted by collectors.
8. Tenses and aspects in the passive
· A passive verb has a form of be and a passive participle.
- The Ministry
announced the figure (active).
- The figure was
announced (passive)
o Simple tenses (simple form of be + passive participle).
-
Large number
of people are killed in the roads.
-
The drugs were
found by the police.
o The Perfect (perfect of be + passive participle)
-
Cocaine has
been seized by the FBI
-
The drugs have
been loaded onto the ship in Ecuador.
o The continuous (continuous of be + passive participle)
-
The case is
being called “the chocolate connection”.
-
Three men were
being questioned by detectives last night.
o Will and be going to (future of be + p.participle)
-
The drugs will
be destroyed
·
We form
negatives and questions in the same way as active sentences.
-
Negative : The
law hasn’t been changed
-
Question : Has
the law been changed ?
·
When we use a
phrasal or prepositional verb in the passive, the adverb or preposition comes
after the passive participle.
-
The tree was
cut down last week
-
Has the doctor
been sent for ?
·
A participle
can be used as modifier, like an adjective (e.g. A broken vase). The participle
can also be put after be. It can express either a state or an action.
-
The vase was
broke. It lay in pieces on the floor (state).
-
The vase was
broken by a guest. He knocked it over (action).
9. The Passive with Get
· We sometimes form the passive wit get rather than with be
. The passive with get expresses action and change, not a state. It is often
refers to something happening by accident, unexpectedly or incidentally. We do
not use get for a major, planned action.
o Example :
-
The vase got
broken when we moved
-
We get paid
monthly
-
It was so hot
my shoulder were getting burnt
-
If you don’t
lock your bike, it might get stolen
o In simple tenses, we use auxiliary do in negatives and
questions.
-
I forgot to
leave the dustbin out, so it didn’t get emptied.
-
How often do
these offices get cleaned ?
· We also use get + passive participle in some idiomatic expressions
-
There wasn’t
enough time to get washed (= wash oneself)
· After get there can be an adjective in ed
-
I’d just got
interested in the fim when the phone rang
(= I’d just become interested in the film).
Stems and
Affixes
1. Cont’d….
} For example
:
Report is formed
from re, which means back, and port which means
carry.
Scientist is derived
from sci, which means know, and ist which means
who.
} Port and sci
are called stems.
} Re and ist
are called affixes.
2. Definition
· A stem is
the basic part on which groups of related words are built.
· Affixes is
word parts that are attached to stems.
· Affixes
like re, which are attached to the beginning of stems, are called
prefixes.
· Affixes
attached to the end, like ist, are called suffixes
3. Cont’d…….
· Generally,
prefixes change the meaning of a word and suffixes change its part of speech.
· Example :
Stem
pay (verb) honest (adj)
Prefix
repay (verb) dishonest (adj)
Suffix
repayment (n) dishonestly(adv)
4. Prefixes
} com-, con-,
col-, cor-, co-
together with ; example : cooperate, connect
} In-, im-,
il-, ir-
in, into, on ; example : invade,
insert
not ;
example : impolite, illegal
} Micro-
small ; example : microscope, microcomputer
5. Stems
} -
audi-, -audit-
hear ; example : auditorium, auditor
} - chron-
time ; example : chronology, chronological
} -dic-,
-dict-
say, speak ; example : dictator, dictation
} - graph-,
-gram-
write, writing ; example :
telegraph, telegram
} - log -, -
ology –
speech, word, study ; example :
biology
} - phon –
sound ; example : telephone
} - scrib-,
script-
write ; example : describe, script
} - spect –
look at ; example : inspect, spectator
} - vid-,
-vis-
see ; example : video, vision
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